Inside Seppuku, The Ancient Samurai Ritual Suicide Tradition

Publish date: 2024-08-27

These fascinating facts illuminate the grisly ritualistic suicide practice of seppuku once carried out by Japan's elite samurai.

Samurai are among history’s most powerful and noble warriors. Living their lives by a code known as bushidō, loyalty and honor were core tenets of the samurai lifestyle. That sense of honor followed a samurai throughout his life — and even, in some instances, his death. When facing defeat, for example, a samurai might commit seppuku, also known as harakiri, a form of ritual suicide done by slitting one’s own belly horizontally with a blade.

Although the exact origins of this rather grisly act are unclear, seppuku likely originated in the late 12th century with one warrior by the name of Minamoto no Yoshitsune. Over the following centuries, seppuku started to evolve into something else, however. In the Warring States period, it allowed leaders to save the lives of their retainers. Then, during the more peaceful Edo period, it became a ritualized form of capital punishment — a way for a disgraced samurai to regain his honor.

Additional customs became attached to seppuku, including wearing a white kimono, writing a death poem, and the introduction of a “kaishakunin,” who would behead the condemned after disembowelment. Seppuku, conceptually, influenced the concept of honor in Japanese culture, but, at the same time, the changes in Japanese culture over the centuries influenced seppuku, as if the two existed in an evolving symbiotic relationship.

In accordance with the Bushido code, which held honor above all else, a samurai would perform seppuku to avoid capture or as punishment for breaking this sacred code.

In this illustration, a warrior prepares himself to perform seppuku, 1850.

Wikimedia Commons The earliest written cases of actual seppuku being performed were in the story of the 1156 Hōgen Rebellion. In this story, warrior Minamoto no Tametomo was said to have reacted to defeat by cutting his own stomach open.

In this colorized photo (possibly a reenactment), a warrior performs seppuku. 1890.

Wikimedia Commons By the middle of the 19th century, seppuku was on the decline along with the samurai way of life. However, it would still be roughly 100 years before its practice had all but been phased out of Japanese culture.

Here a samurai is shown in the process of committing seppuku, his death poem at his feet.

Circa 1880.

Getty Images "Seppuku" is translated as "stomach cutting" and would be performed with a tanto, a short dagger.

This photo shows a disassembled antique tanto and its smaller dagger counterpart.

British Museum/Wikimedia Commons A bushido knife like one that would have been used to perform seppuku.Mark Davidson/Alamy Stock Photo As with all things related to seppuku, how the tanto was inserted into the gut was carried out in a specific way.

The blade would be thrust into the left side of the belly and pulled to the right with a sharp upward cut at the end.

This image from a kabuki play depicts a warrior committing seppuku as armed soldiers pursue him. 1856.

Wikimedia Commons Prior to the 17th century, the practice was less formal and often resulted in a slower and more painful death as participants bled out.

Around 1700, a helping-hand was incorporated with the addition of a kaishakunin or "second." This person's job was to use a sword to lop off the head of the samurai to deliver a quick death after the samurai had committed seppuku and returned his dagger to its sheath.

Wikimedia Commons The kaishakunin was not supposed to fully sever the head, but leave it still slightly attached at the throat. Failure to do so earned one a bad reputation.

The distraught face of the kaishakunin above possibly shows his embarrassment in his less than ideal performance.

Library of Congress A modified version of seppuku would occasionally be used as a form of protest against the actions of a ruler.

Known as kanshi, this version would see the samurai commit the act and then quickly bandage the wound. He would later appear before his lord and state his grievances before removing the bandage to expose the mortal wound.

1895.

Wikimedia Commons An illustration of the seppuku ritual as part of the revenge of the 47 ronin.

The revenge of the 47 ronin took place in Japan at the start of the 18th century and recounts the most famous case involving the samurai code of honor, bushido.

The story tells of a group of samurai who were left leaderless — making them ronin — after their lord Asano Naganori was forced to commit seppuku for assaulting a court official.

CPA Media Pte Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo Woodblock print of Matsunaga Hisahide about to commit seppuku, from the series "Yoshitoshi's Courageous Warriors: by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi.Penta Springs Limited/Alamy Stock Photo A soldier waiting on his knees to perform Hara-Kiri, a form of seppuku.World History Archive/Alamy Stock Photo Isao Inokuma, (second from the left) won a gold medal for Japan in martial arts at the 1964 Olympics and is the last known person to have performed ritualistic seppuku.

It's believed that he carried out the act after suffering huge financial losses as CEO of his company in 2001.

Mario De Biassi/Wikimedia Commons Three decades before the seppuku of Isao Inokuma, Japanese novelist Yukio Mishima committed the act after a failed coup d'état, intended to restore the powers of the emperor, at a military base in Tokyo (pictured, on November 25, 1970).Bettmann/Contributor/Getty Images On November 25, Mishima and five uniformed followers charged in to the Ichigaya Station of the Japanese Ground Self-Defense Force, slashed at soldiers who tried to stop them and took over the commanding officer's offices.

Appearing on the balcony of the building, Mishima delivered a speech to 2,000 soldiers who surrounded it. "Japan's present politics are full of corruption," he said, closing his speech with the war cry of the old Japanese armed forces: "Tenno Banzai" ("long live the emperor"). He then disappeared into the building and committed seppuku.

Bettmann/Contributor/Getty Images The coffin containing the body of Mishima is carried out of the office of General Kanetoshi Mashita at the eastern headquarters of Japan's Ground Self-Defense Force in Tokyo on November 25. Seppuku was an incredibly ritualistic process and involved the samurai going through a number of preparations before committing the act.

One of these was writing his death poem, which was supposed to be eloquent and attest to their emotions, but not directly mention death.

In this illustration, General Akashi Gidayu prepares to commit seppuku after losing a battle for his master in 1582. His death poem is visible in the upper right corner. 1890.

Wikimedia Commons Wives of samurai had their own suicide ritual known as jigai. Carried out in a very similar way with a knife to the belly, women would perform this if their husbands had carried out seppuku or if capture by an an enemy was imminent, so as to prevent rape. Wikimedia Commons A still from Masaki Kobayashi's 1962 film Harakiri about a samurai who arrives at the home of a lord and asks to commit seppuku at his property.Shochiku A representation of a Japanese soldier committing seppuku. SPCOLLECTION/Alamy Stock Photo A woodblock print of a Samurai commiting Seppuku from One Hundred Warriors by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839-1892).Universal Art Archive/Alamy Stock Photo When carried out as punishment, seppuku was not typically a solitary act and was performed in front of one's peers in the garden area of a temple.

The participant would be properly groomed and bathed and dressed in white to symbolize purity.

1867.

Wikimedia Commons An illustration of Taki Zenzaburo committing seppuku after the Kobe Incident.

The Kobe Incident was a diplomatic crisis in 1868 between Imperial Japan and several Western powers, caused by a skirmish between Bizen soldiers and foreign sailors in Kobe. It led to the temporary occupation of Kobe by foreign forces and the execution of Japanese squad leader Taki Zenzaburo to resolve the incident.

Universal Art Archive/Alamy Stock Photo 1860 Ukiyo-E print by Kunisada of a rather gory depiction of Nakamura Fukusuke as Hayano Kampei committing seppuku in a scene from Act 6 of the kabuki play Kanadehon Chushingura.Wikimedia Commons A servant would typically place a small wooden table in front of the participant that would be set with a sake cup, tanto, and a piece of paper for writing the death poem.

Even the way in which the sake was consumed was of the utmost importance. The sake would be consumed in two drinks of two sips each. One sip would show greed, and three or more would show hesitation. The total of four sips, or shi, would symbolize death.

Wikimedia Commons 20th-century handscroll painting of a samurai awaiting his kaishakunin. Woodblock print by Utagawa Kuniyoshi depicting Hayano Kanpei Yoshitoshi seated with the front of his body exposed, to perform seppuku.Wikimedia Commons Seppuku illustration. Circa 1815-1818.Library of Congress A depiction of a man committing seppuku, dated to around 1700.Wikimedia Commons Rendering of a man contemplating seppuku. Circa 1800-1850.Library of Congress Several people gather together to commit seppuku. Circa 1804-1812.Library of Congress A satirical illustration from 1946 depicts Japanese war leader General Tojo about to perform ritual suicide.World History Archive/Alamy Stock Photo

Seppuku: Inside The Ancient Samurai Suicide Ritual View Gallery

The Origins Of Seppuku

Despite being intrinsically linked to the samurai code, seppuku did not begin with the samurai — at least, so long as legend is to be believed. According to Nippon.com, the first instance of seppuku allegedly dates back to 988 C.E., when a bandit by the name of Hakamadare was said to have slashed open his stomach after being caught. However, there is no real evidence that Hakamadare actually did this, and since he was a thief and not a samurai, it would be somewhat untruthful to say his death marked the beginning of seppuku.

Rather, University of Tokyo professor Yamamoto Hirofumi suggests seppuku's true origins came about a century later, in 1189. Following the Genpei War — a final struggle in Japan between the Taira and Minamoto clans, ending with the Minamoto's establishment of the Kamakura shogunate — Minamoto no Yoshitsune was facing defeat, with no option to retreat. Not willing to surrender himself to the forces that overwhelmed him, Minamoto chose to take his own life, plunging a knife into his stomach and slicing it open. His death was seen as an honorable way to die, a death that wiped away the dishonor of defeat.

Dying in battle was courageous, but running away was seen as a coward's option. By taking one's own life, a samurai was making a final, painful choice about how he died. Seppuku embodied the bushidō code of honor, courage, and self-sacrifice, and this grisly practice continued to be seen in such a manner through the medieval era. However, during the Warring States period (1467 to 1568), it would change.

How Seppuku Changed During The Warring States Period

The Warring States period — or the Sengoku period — was a time in Japanese history plagued by almost continual civil wars throughout the 15th and 16th centuries. Feudal lords turned on each other and the emperor, each vying to control Japan. Vassals turned on their lords, hoping to come into power of their own. It was a time of political chaos and mass social unrest.

Wikimedia CommonsAn ukiyo-e print depicting a battle during the Warring States period.

Given the tumultuous nature of the times, the life of a samurai was a busy, violent one. But the samurai code had not changed, and an honorable death was still sought after. But something had changed. Seppuku was no longer just a means for a warrior to retain his honor in death; it started being seen as a way for a military leader to save the lives of his retainers.

One of the most famous examples of this sacrificial seppuku occurred in June 1582. Hashiba Hideyoshi's forces sieged the castle of Shimizu Muneharu, intentionally diverting a river to flood the castle. Muneharu, realizing defeat was imminent, struck a deal of sorts with Hideyoshi: if Muneharu would commit seppuku, no one else would be killed.

Muneharu boarded a small boat and sailed out of the flooded castle. There, in the middle of the water, he plunged a knife into his stomach, and his people were spared.

His sacrifice was seen as a noble one, and it was slowly adopted by other military leaders who would sacrifice their own lives to protect their people.

This turbulent, war-torn period eventually came to an end, however. Once the conflict was over, a period of peace was ushered in, and with it, a new evolution of seppuku.

Seppuku As Capital Punishment During The Edo Period

Until now, seppuku had been a voluntary act, an honorable way out for samurai in dire situations. However, now that Japan's constant infighting had come to an end, the role of samurai in society began to change as well. Rather than serving as a military force, samurai instead took roles as civil servants, teachers, clerks, and bureaucrats in the Tokugawa shogunate.

But they were still bound by a code, and with that came certain expectations of how they should behave. As such, there needed to be punishment for any samurai who broke his code — and seppuku was as fitting a punishment as any.

Ukiyo E Print Of Japans Shipping Industry

Wikimedia CommonsAn ukiyo-e print of Osaka's shipping industry during the Edo period.

The biggest change during the Edo period, however, was that seppuku was no longer a voluntary act. It was a forced form of execution, ordered by the shogunate for any samurai who violated laws or feudal codes. Dishonorable acts or offenses brought shame not just on the samurai who committed them, but also upon his lord. Seppuku, as always, was seen as a way for the samurai to restore his honor.

During this period, other elements of the ritual evolved, too. Someone forced to commit seppuku would do so publicly, dressed in a white kimono. They were to face their death with dignity and stoicism in hopes of restoring their honor, and once the deed was done, a kaishakunin would step forward and behead the newly atoned samurai — though, notably, they would not remove the head completely.

Seppuku was essentially the most extreme example of a devotion to the bushiō code, a representation of the strict ideals of feudal Japan. But that feudal structure ultimately came to an end in the mid-19th century, when Japan signed numerous commercial agreements with Western countries. It was a controversial decision, but it also empowered those in Japan who opposed the power of the shogunate and wanted to restore the power of the emperor. Eventually, the combined efforts of the Choshu and Satsuma clans toppled the Tokugawa Shogunate and brought about the Meiji restoration in 1868.

Seppuku In Post-Feudal Japan

Three years later, feudalism in Japan officially came to an end — and with it, the reign of the samurai. That said, bushidō did not disappear entirely. It became the ruling moral code of Japan, which is why, during World War II, Japanese soldiers equipped themselves with samurai swords to make suicidal "banzai" attacks.

In fact, TIME, in July 1945, shared the account of a soldier who witnessed the deaths of Japanese generals Mitsuru Ushijima and Isamu Cho — brutal deaths that harkened back to the age of the samurai:

"Ushijima's aide stepped forward, bowed, handed each General a gleaming knife. The knives had been half covered with white cloth, so that the aide did not touch the sacred metal.

The Generals opened their blouses, unbuckled their belts. Ushijima leaned forward and with both hands pressed the blade against his belly. One of his adjutants did not wait for the knife to plunge deep. With his razor-sharp saber he lopped off his superior's head. General Cho leaned forward against his blade. The adjutant swung again. Orderlies took the bodies away.

General Cho had left his own epitaph: 'Twenty-second day, sixth month, 20th year of Showa era. I depart without regret, fear, shame or obligation. Age on departure 51 years.'"

Although the men had not been samurai, they still sought an honorable death through seppuku. While the act is unlikely to be used in the modern age, the fact that it lasted well into the 20th century is, if nothing else, remarkable. Seppuku, though it might seem gruesome to Westerners, represented the deeply ingrained cultural ideals of feudal Japan that altered the course of the nation's history.

After learning about seppuku, check out more of Japan's Imperial era and be sure and dive deeper into the lost ways of the last samurai.